The Russian Revolution by Sheila Fitzpatrick

The Russian Revolution by Sheila Fitzpatrick Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 2008. The Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press is a book exploring the Russian Revolution: 1917 – 1932. I have chosen this book for analysis in order to improve my knowledge of that historic period and get better understanding of the essence, causes and aims of the Revolution.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on The Russian Revolution by Sheila Fitzpatrick specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The second reason for my choice was that I wanted to examine new approaches to the issue and develop my critical thinking as this book provides a new perspective and new aspects of the historical events. It is a sort of reading for those who are critical about history and want to develop personal opinion independent from a generally accepted point of view. In addition, the book is not very long, but rich in content and provides not only general information, but details of that historical per iod. What is more, the book is easy to read. The topic of the book is Russian Revolution, its aims, purposes, causes, consequences and flow. There are different approaches to the time period that can be considered revolutionary. The author of this book defines the following frames: â€Å"The timespan of the Russian Revolution runs from February 1917 to the Great Purge of 1937-8. The different stages – the February and October Revolutions of 1917, the Civil War, the interlude of NEP, Stalin’s â€Å"revolution from above†, its aftermath and the Great Purges – are treated as district episodes in a twenty-year process of revolution† (Fitzpatrick 2008, 4). The book consists of chapters which contain comprehensive and critical analysis of each period supported by various historiographical references. Three major themes of the Russian Revolution are discussed in each chapter. The first theme is the Bolsheviks’ vision of the revolution as a mean of modernization of the society. Fitzpatrick defines the goal of Bolsheviks as â€Å"revolution as a means of escaping backwardness.† (Fitzpatrick 2008, 4). The second major theme is the class theme: revolution as the â€Å"mission of proletariat† to create a new working class. The third team discloses the problem of violence and terror that took place in the country.Advertising Looking for report on eastern europe? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The author provides the information on how Revolution â€Å"dealt with its enemies† (that often were innocent people), what meaning it had for the government and why the government was so afraid of those â€Å"enemies†. The author presents the Revolution as a set of agitations and recurrences. She describes the results of the Revolution as positive to a certain extent. The Stalin’s Revolution extended the direct state over the economy and gre atly improved the economic state of the country. Fitzpatrick states that Russian peasants were more progressive than in the rest of the Western Europe, as a consequence, they formed a new class of workers. The Stalin’s Revolution provided new and productive ways of exploiting peasant agriculture. The state was strong and â€Å"disciplined†. However, the author emphasizes the price of that power: â€Å"The persecution of â€Å"class enemies† in collectivization and the Cultural Revolution had left a complex legacy of bitterness, fear, and suspicion, as well as encouraging such practices as denunciation, purging, and â€Å"self-criticism† (Fitzpatrick 2008, 148). We can consider this book a highly reliable source of information, as its author, Sheila Fitzpatrick, is a renowned specialist in the field of the Soviet History. She made a great contribution to the study of Soviet History, as well as modern Russian history. Among her recent publications are Ever yday Stalinism (2000), Tear of the Mask! Identity and Imposture in Twentieth-Century Russia (2005). Her works primarily focus on the social and cultural history of Russia of the Stalin period. Her biography is rich in awards, among which is a Mellon Foundation Distinguished Achievement Award. She is also a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Her works are not a mere description of events and personalities. She provides her vision of the problem or historical event which is based on archive materials and researches by other Western authors. The book is also very interesting to read as the author has a particular approach to the subject discussed. First of all, the author provides the idea that Russian society was not ready for revolution and that Russian Revolution of 1917 was a â€Å"contradiction† to the idea of Marx’s revolution. The citizens were the rural peasants who were industrial workers and they were more willing for a revolt than Marx expecte d them to be.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on The Russian Revolution by Sheila Fitzpatrick specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Another Fitzpatrick’s idea that generally contradicts a commonly accepted point of view that October Revolution contributed strength and discipline to the organization of the state. The author argues this point of view. She states that Provisional Government decided to â€Å"intransigent radicalism on the extreme left of the political spectrum† (Fitzpatrick 2008, 48) and could be seen by people as the only not corrupted part. The capture of power by Bolsheviks was just the first step of the Revolution. The next step was a Civil War that had a great influence on the flow of it and on the establishment of the Soviet power. However, the author does not try to persuade the reader in her point of view, she only presents facts and provides her assumptions. The task of the reader is to develop personal vision of the historical events and it not necessary should coincide with the author’s. The author assumes that: â€Å"For Russians and other former soviet citizens, the collapse of the Soviet Union meant a fundamental reappraisal of the meaning of the Revolution, previously hailed as the foundational event of the â€Å"world’s first social state† and now seen by many as a wrong turning that took Russia off course for seventy-four years† (Fitzpatrick 2008, 4). The author generally accepts this vision and analyzes the most important changes from the historical perspective. As the author used new document that became available after 1991, her vision of the Revolution has changed in some aspects. Outlining some positive sides of it, the author emphasizes the mistakes that were done. She supports her point of view with convincing evidences and analysis of works by other authors. Having read this book, I developed a bit different vision on the Russian Revolution. I can come to a conclusion that people were not ready for it and the actions that government undertook were contradictory to those suggested by Marx as people did not understand the essence of Revolution.Advertising Looking for report on eastern europe? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As a result, the idea of revolution â€Å"to put power into hand of the working class† failed and all people got was just another government which tried to build new society subordinate to new rules. However, in general the book does not present different information, it just adds new details and evidences to what have already been studied. It is a good book for those who want a critique vision of the history. Reference List Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 2008. The Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press.

30 More Nautical Expressions

30 More Nautical Expressions 30 More Nautical Expressions 30 More Nautical Expressions By Mark Nichol After launching a list of seafaring idioms on a previous online cruise, I discovered a cargo hold of additional expressions that originated on the high seas but have come to rest high and dry on land. Here’s the haul. 1. All at sea: lost because of lack of knowledge of one’s position (confused and disorganized) 2. At loose ends: a reference to idle sailors being assigned to check that rigging is secure (idle) 3. Bail out: remove water from (assist or rescue) 4. Broad in the beam: said of a wide vessel (said of a large-hipped woman) 5. By and large: said in reference to steering slightly off the wind to ease effort and decrease the risk of slowing (in general, without special consideration) 6. Cut and run: sever the anchor line in an emergency (leave abruptly and abandoning others) 7. Fall foul of: collide with or become entangled in (come into conflict with) 8. First-rate: the largest class of warships during the sailing era (best) 9. Flog a dead horse: a reference to a period of work after getting and spending an initial payment (focusing on something already completed or settled) 10. Flotsam and jetsam: items lost or thrown overboard, respectively (odds and ends) 11. Give a wide berth: provide sufficient space when anchoring or docking to avoid other ships (keep at a distance) 12. Go by the board: a reference to something lost overboard (said of something to be abandoned or ignored) 13. Hail from: referring to the point of origin of a ship (come from, live) 14. Half seas over: partly submerged or keeled over so that waves are breaking over the deck, and therefore unable to maneuver effectively (drunk) 15. Hand over fist: using one hand at a time in quick alternating movements (rapidly) 16. Hard and fast: grounded (inflexible) 17. Hard up: a reference to the tiller being pushed as far to one side as possible (short of money) 18. High and dry: beached or caught on rocks and standing out of the water as the tide recedes (stranded or without resources or support) 19. In the offing: in sight, from the term for the expanse of ocean visible from shore (about to happen) 20. Know the ropes/learn the ropes: a reference to understanding knots, ropes, and rigging (familiarity with or training in how to perform a task) 21. Loose cannon: a piece of artillery that is not secure and therefore can cause damage or injury when it rolls on its wheels from the ship’s movement or from its recoil after being fired (out of control or unpredictable) 22. Ship shape: ready for sailing, with equipment and materials secured (clean, neat, in good condition) 23. Skylarking: sliding down rigging for fun (engaging in playful antics) 24. Take another tack: change the ship’s direction in relation to the wind (try another approach) 25. Take the wind out of one’s sails: a reference to the loss of movement when another vessel comes between the wind and one’s ship (to undermine another, usually by anticipating an action) 26. Taken aback: halted by a sudden shift of wind (surprised by a revelation) 27. Three sheets to the wind: a reference to the sheets (ropes) of a sail becoming loosened, rendering the sail useless (drunk) 28. Trim one’s sails (before the wind): adjust sails as appropriate (act according to circumstances) 29. When one’s ship comes home: a reference to the arrival of a fully laden cargo ship that will bring profit to the owner or investors (achievement of fortune or good luck) 30. Whistle for it/whistle for the wind: from the tradition of superstitiously whistling to summon the wind (hope for the impossible) At least two nautical expressions, â€Å"between the devil and the deep (blue) sea† (meaning, essentially, â€Å"between a rock and a hard place†) and â€Å"to the bitter end† (meaning â€Å"to the last extremity, regardless of difficulty†), have been attributed to seafaring origins, but the idioms, or similar expressions, may have come from earlier landlubber usage. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Mostly Small But Expressive InterjectionsRunning Amok or Running Amuck?Charles's Pen and Jesus' Name

To what extent does Channel Four continue to fulfil its original remit Essay

To what extent does Channel Four continue to fulfil its original remit Is that remit still relevant in the current broadcasting environment - Essay Example The recent reality show of the Big Brother has been a huge hit among the viewers of the UK. From its humble beginnings, the channel has matured to one of the most popular channels in the UK. In 1995, Brookside attracted nine million viewers. â€Å"Four Weddings and a Funeral† drew eleven million viewers. These programs have been an integral part of the success of the channel. The channel has been following its remit in the broadcast of its programs. The remit of the company as stated in its website is as follows: â€Å"Foster the new and experimental in television.   It will encourage pluralism, provide a favored place for the untried and encourage innovation in style content perspective and talent on and off screen†. (Twenty years of Channel 4; Statement of promises). Throughout its history, the channel has been introducing programs that have been hardly viewed by the people of the UK earlier. The remit of the channel has been to introduce innovation in the programs in the channel. The channel has a full repertoire of programs ranging from drama, films, comedy, documentaries etc. Channel 4 has covered almost all the genres of entertainment. The channel has been targeting the youth with its programs, which has been attacked by Sir Jeremy Isaacs, the founder of the channel. In his words, "To target and reach a demographically clearly defined audience - the 18-35 year-olds - and single-mindedly commission a bulk of programmes that suits their tastes, however laddish or yobbish." (Twenty years of Channel 4) The choice of the programs in the case of the channel has been increasingly linked to the needs of the younger generation. The use of the adultery, sex etc. in the programs has been popular. This has been seen in the case of all the genres of the programs. In the case of comedy, the programs like â€Å"Balls of Steel† have a rich content of adult humor. The program

Implement a marketing solution (case study) Case Study

Implement a marketing solution ( ) - Case Study Example 2007). By taking the consumers' needs and wants into consideration, Gillette is offering those products with proper design and accuracy for achieving customer satisfaction. It is a product which provides ultimate satisfaction to its consumers. The main feature of Gillette is that it is having five blade frontage technologies. Even though Gillette is having a brand loyalty among the consumers, still it is facing healthy competition from rivalries. The fact behind this is none other than the expensive price tags that Gillette products come with, as compared to other products. Despite being one of the leading companies in the industry, they are facing competition. Following are the leading competitors of Gillette fusion razor: The primary market for Gillette is basically the wholesale distributors in the market. The distributors are the first purchaser of the product. There is a direct relation between the producer and the distributor. Secondary market is the second stage in the movement of a product in the market. Secondary market represents the retailers of the product. The consumers normally buy the product from the secondary market. 1) Increased quality: this strategy of Gillette states that the company is not interested in making profits at the cost of qual

Benefits And Barriers To Ehr Health And Social Care Essay

Benefits And Barriers To Ehr Health And Social Care Essay Health informatics is a multidisciplinary area which covers medicine, technology and people. The area puts an emphasis on implementation of information technology and computer science to health care to better manage it. E-health or electronic healthcare is a relatively new discipline introduced to improve patient care, shorten delay times, and prevent errors in clinical settings. Electronic health record (EHR) is an electronic record of patients medical history which includes but is not limited to medications, X-rays, allergies, immunizations etc often accessed by authorized personnel (doctors, nurses and pharmacists) at hospitals and clinics. This will replace paper and eliminate the need for manual paperwork which is unreliable and tedious. According to International Journal of Medical Informatics V. 78, By 2041, 22% of the Canadian population is expected to be aged 65 or over, up from 13% in 2001 (The Change Foundation, 2005). As the elderly population start to retire, the cost an d demand of healthcare increases drastically. This also increases the risks of diseases with aging such as type two diabetes, cardiovascular disease, different types of cancer, arthritis, Alzheimers disease and more. Thusly, new and efficient systems are needed for this to better handle this trend. EHR is necessary to fulfill the gaps between health supply and demand, it will benefit patients, health care personnel and improve health care system overall. There are both benefits and barriers to EHR; fortunately, there are ways to overcome the barriers and implement EHR in Canada. The main benefit of EHR for patients include the general improvement for quality of care by providing detailed information about patients medicine intake and history, consequently preventing errors in the future. Other benefits include the mobility of records from medical institutions, hence helping those in remote areas. There would also be fewer waiting times in emergency rooms and clinics since medical personnel have instant access to patients record. EHR also benefits healthcare providers and workers by reducing time spent on paperwork and increasing productivity; while providing efficient and comprehensive care to the patients. In spite of this, some critical barriers do prevent it from adoption. The major concern is privacy of patients records and security. Privacy is a very significant issue and individuals want their information to be in safe hands. O ther barriers include initial setup costs and training for new technologies. Overcoming these barriers will require time and incentives both from public and government which will be discussed later. In conclusion, implementing electronic health records in Canada and overcoming the barriers will benefit patients, healthcare personnel and improve the healthcare system overall. Background New technology has benefited humans to a great extent and EHR is certainly no exception. EHR has existed in Canada for a while but it is still not fully acknowledged by the public. There are television commercials from Canada Health Infoway promoting and raising awareness of EHR in Ontario and British Colombia. The Canadian government has dedicated $1.6 billion to Health Infoway whose objective is to implement a pan-Canadian EHR and provide records to all Canadians by 2015. Alberta has already launched a successful system called Netcare which lets physicians, hospitals and pharmacists access secured online system and observe patients health information. Netcare is one of the reasons why Alberta has the most efficient and best health care system in Canada. On the other hand, Ontario has recently suffered from an appalling scandal which resulted into an estimated $1 billion wasted. eHealth Ontario has come under criticism as well. In April 2009, the provinces opposition parties argued that the government wasted $647 million developing electronic health records before they shut down the SSHA only to start again from scratch with eHealth Ontario (CBC News, 2009). The Health ministry of Ontario needs to take responsibility, stop wasting taxpayers money and implement this system which is long overdue. Other countries have already introduced EHR, such as United Kingdom, Australia, the Netherlands and New Zealand. Canada and United States are still debating adoption and falling behind. Majority of the countries which have implemented EHR have national health insurance system which is funded through taxes, similar to Canada. Yet Canada is trailing behind due to ethical and political barriers. It is disappointing to some extent that Canada as a developed nation still lags behind other countries in health care advancements. Nonetheless, these barriers can be solved through increased funding, incentives and establishment of secure systems. How does EHR benefit patients and health care workers? Physicians will benefit greatly from EHR, according to the International Journal of Medical Informatics V. 76 A recent survey of U.S. primary care physician found that almost 75% indicated that these applications could reduce errors; 70% perceived IT as potentially increasing their productivity; over 60% indicated that IT tools have the potential to reduce costs and help patients assume more responsibility (J.G. Anderson/E.A. Balas, 2006). EHR helps medical staff keep track of patients prescribed medicines, previous health conditions, allergies and chronic diseases. This ensures physicians are fully aware of situation and can provide proper treatment with smaller chances of making errors. EHR provides access to current information at the point of care. It gives medical service providers access to key patient information along with online decision support and reference tools. It also helps reduce the possibility of medical errors, assists with compliance issues, and decreases the pote ntial for adverse drug reactions. Features like lab value trends and drug monographs also help with patient consultations. (Alberta Netcare, EHR). This benefits both physicians and patients. For example, if someone has a minor or major accident and is rushed to an emergency room for medical attention, the doctor is required to question the patient for previous medication, history, allergies etc. It is difficult for a patient to recall their history in such a state and is generally unable to communicate. This wastes time and becomes more likely for the doctor to misdiagnosis. According to Health Infoway, Right now in Canada, the lack of a comprehensive EHR system, for every 1,000: Hospital admissions, 75 people will suffer an adverse drug event; Patients with an ambulatory encounter, 20 will suffer a serious drug occurrence; Laboratory tests performed, up to 150 will be unnecessary; Emergency room visits, 320 patients will have an information gap, resulting in an average increased stay of 1.2 hours (Strasbourg, Health Infoway). If EHR were present, the doctor would have had instant access to patients medication history, allergies thus avoiding unnecessary testing. Also, i t would allow a quicker diagnosis with little or no mistakes. This will save great amount of time in emergency rooms therefore reducing lines and making health care system more efficient. Some hospitals in North America do possess EHR systems but its restricted to that specific institution. If EHR connections between hospitals and other medical institutions are established, it becomes easier for health care practitioners to assess patients and provide service. As a result, EHR allows medical professionals in remote areas to access information using network and vice versa. In conclusion, there are some major benefits to EHR which could provide assistance to Canadas healthcare system and improve quality of care. What are the barriers and risks? There are some significant barriers which prevent EHR from implementing in Ontario and other provinces. The main and most controversial barrier is privacy and security of patients health record. EHRs contain very personal important information about a patient which includes demographics, prescribed medicines, allergies, immunizations, lab tests, X-rays and other reports. It would be devastating and very dangerous if records fall into the wrong hands and/or are mistreated. There has been an incident where a patients privacy was not respected. A guilty plea and hefty fine for unauthorized access to personal health information sets a very important precedent for health care providers, says Information and Privacy Commissioner Frank Work. A medical office clerk from Calgary pleaded guilty to charges of improperly accessing another persons medical information, in contravention of the Health Information Act (HIA). The individual appeared in Calgary court Friday and was fined $10,000. This is the first time that charges have laid under the HIA. (Office of the Information and Privacy Commissioner of Alberta, 2007) This creates fear in the minds of the public and privacy and security is at stake despite laws and regulations. These incidents are rare but they do expose the lack of privacy and vulnerability of EHR to disloyal employees. There are also claims that EHRs access to internet and broad systems make it vulnerable to hackers. Figure 1 shows different factors which affect the objective of implementation. (International journal of medical informatics V28) Another barrier to EHR is the initial setup costs and hiring/training staff for new technologies. Developing integrated organizations can be costly and require years before efficiencies are realized. Information technology supports integrated care as EHR allows physicians to access patient information through centralized network (Mary E. Wiktorowicz, p. 301). This can be very expensive because governments have to establish centralized system to store, protect and handle records. As mentioned earlier, vast amount of funding ($1 billion) for eHealth has already been wasted in Ontario and it will be more difficult for taxpayers to reimburse this especially during these harsh economic times. Great incentive and financial support is needed from public to accomplish this venture. All paper records have to be transformed into electronic which will be very time consuming. In conclusion, there are some significant barriers which hinder the implementation of EHR. Overcoming barriers As mentioned already, there are existing laws which already protect the privacy of Canadians. EHR must obey The Privacy Act whose purpose is to extend the present laws of Canada that protect the privacy of individuals with respect to personal information about themselves held by a government institution and that provide individuals with a right of access to that information (Privacy Act 1985, c. P-21). The Government of Canada and medical institution have a responsibility of protecting and insuring the security of medical records. Alberta has also introduced Health Information Act (HIA) which setup guidelines for both patients and health care workers. This act requires workers (authorized) to access files only when necessary and in professional manner. So far there has only been one situation which set a precedent and sent a serious message to all health care custodians and their employees. This is a very serious matter, and health care providers must know that surfing records for pe rsonal purposes will not be tolerated and individuals will be prosecuted (Wayne Wood, 2007). Medical personnel that violate policy and law are held criminally responsible and their jobs are taken away immediately. Thus it would not be wise for any staff to commit such actions which would cost them their jobs, salary or even end up in jail. EHR are still more secure than ordinary paper records. For example, in November 2008 a reporter of RTV West, a local Dutch radio network, asked for a copy of medical records in several hospitals and asked to fax them to his home. He easily got six out of eight requests without any questions. In the two other cases the hospitals solely requested a written permission (i.e. a signature) (Laurens J. van Baardewijk, Amsterdam Law Forum). This exposes the weak and unsecure system of paper records. Fax machines, telephone and mail systems are very unreliable. There have been numerous incidents involving paper medical records either used improperly by clinical staff or stolen by an intruder and used for unlawful purposes. This is due to lack of security and reliability of traditional paper records. On the other hand, EHR requires login information from health care professionals and authorization is required from patient and worker. All EHR systems are encrypted and only accessible to authori zed users (doctors, nurses, health care workers). Encryption is established into multiple layers which require multiple login sessions and online security monitoring. This makes it extremely difficult for hackers to access the system; consequently, EHR system is both safe and secure. Initial costs are very high and taxes have to increased once again to successful establish this system. An EHR system in Ontario does not necessarily have to cost a fortune, because they could simply borrow and emulate the system from other provinces such as Alberta. McMaster University has already developed a beta system for EHR in hospitals but Ministry of Health is not paying close attention. Nonetheless, EHR system will be established very soon throughout Canada and once its established, itll decrease medical costs by $6 billion. This will eventually decrease the amount of taxes issued significantly, especially in Ontario. It will also create new jobs in health informatics field and provide training to nurses and doctors. It is estimated around 40,000 new jobs will be created. The benefits of EHR are far greater than the risks and barriers. EHR will certainly benefit Canadians and improve our health care system. Conclusion EHR has benefits, barriers and risks, but it is now evident that the benefits outweigh the risks. EHR will be available to all Canadians soon in the future despite the barriers because as population increases, diseases increases and senior citizen population increases accordingly. Therefore, demand for health care rises as more people are waiting in lines for hospitals and clinics. Comprehensive and efficient EHR systems are very crucial to meet health demands of citizens. Some key benefits include the improvement of quality of care by providing information about history consequently preventing errors in the future. Other benefits include the mobility of records from medical institutions and reducing waiting times in emergency rooms and clinics since medical personnel have instant access to patients record. It also benefits health care providers and workers by reducing time spent on paperwork and increasing productivity while providing efficient and comprehensive care to the public. Privacy and security issues still remain; nonetheless, they will be resolved with new laws and technological improvements. Initial setup will be expensive but EHRs benefits are vital to Canadas health care system. Canada needs to catch up to other developed countries in health informatics and improve health care system. To conclude, implementing EHR in Canada will benefit patients, health care personnel and improve health care system overall.

Behavior Therapy: Basic Concepts, Assessment Methods, and Applications

Behavior Therapy: Basic Concepts, Assessment Methods, and Applications. Different kinds of psychotherapies have existed throughout history, and have always been rooted in philosophical views of human nature (Wachtel P. , 1997). Specifically, behavior therapy intents to help individuals overcome difficulties in nearly any aspect of human experience (Thorpe G. & Olson S. , 1990). The techniques of behavior therapy have been applied to education, the workplace, consumer activities, and even sports, but behavior therapy in clinical settings is largely concerned with the assessment of mental health problems.In general, behavior therapy is a type of psychotherapy that aims on changing undesirable types of behavior. It engages in identifying objectionable, maladaptive behaviors and replacing them with healthier ones. . According to Rimm D. & Masters J. (1974), the label â€Å"behavior therapy† comprises a large number of different techniques that make use of psychological-especially learning- principles to deal with maladaptive human behavior. Behavior therapy is a relative new kind of psychotherapy (Corsini R. & Wedding D. , 2008).As a systematic approach, behavior therapy began in the 1950’s, in order to assess and treat psychological disorders. Behavior therapy was developed by a small group of psychologists and physicians who were not satisfied with the conventional techniques of psychotherapy (Thorpe G. et al, 1990). They linked behavior therapy to experimental psychology, differentiating it from other preexisting approaches. During behavior therapy’s first phase, the applied developed from principles of classical and operant conditioning. There are varying views about the best way to define behavior therapy.However, most health professionals agree to Eysenck's definition: â€Å"Behavior therapy is the attempt to alter human behavior and emotions in a beneficial way according to the laws of modern learning theory†. Erwin E. (1978), ins tead of proposing a specific definition for behavior therapy, he referred to some basic and important characteristics that this therapy possesses. According to Erwin, behavior therapy is used largely to lessen human suffering or to improve human functioning. He pointed out that it is a psychological rather than a biological form of treatment.In the cases of phobias treatment, behavior therapy is usually applied to treat the symptoms directly. Moreover, behavior therapy is characteristically used to modify maladaptive behavior or to teach adaptive behavior. This means that the focus is on individuals’ behavior. In some cases, behavior therapy techniques may even be used to reduce unwanted mental states as in Davinson’s (1968) use of counterconditioning to reduce sadistic fantasy, simply because the mental state itself is unwanted (as stated in Erwin, 1978).Another basic characteristic of behavior therapy is that it is often used in an incremental rather than a holistic fashion. Problems that are to be treated are first divided into their components and each component is treated separately. Last, behavior therapy is studied and used experimentally, being closely related to learning theory research. Three main approaches in contemporary behavior therapy have been identified (Corsini R. et al, 2008). These are the applied behavior analysis (ABA), the neobehavioristic meditational stimulus-response model, and the social cognitive theory.ABA refers to the application of the principles of learning and motivation from Behavior Analysis (the scientific study of behavior), and the procedures and technology derived from those principles, to the solution of problems of social significance. This approach is based on Skinner’s radical behaviorism. It identifies behaviors that should be extinguished and behaviors that are to be taught. It makes use of reinforcement, punishment, extinction, stimulus control, and other procedures derived from laboratory re search (Corsini R. et al, 2008).It is most frequently applied to children with autistic spectrum disorders, but is an effective tool for children with behavioral disorders, multiple disabilities, and severe intellectual handicaps. The neobehavioristic meditational stimulus-response (S-R) model features the applications of the principles of classical conditioning, and it derives from the learning theories of Ivan Pavlov, E. Guthrie, lark Hull, O. Mowrer, and N. Miller (as cited in Corsini et al, 2008). The S-R model has been linked to systematic desensitization and flooding.Systematic desensitization was developed by Joseph Wolpe (1958). It is a therapy for phobias based on counterconditioning -a technique for eliminating a conditioned response that involves pairing a conditioned stimulus with another unconditioned stimulus to condition a new response. If the new response in incompatible with the old response, so that only one response can occur at a time, then the new response can r eplace the old one. In systematic desensitization, patients visualize fear- evoking stimuli while relaxing, to associate the stimuli with relaxation instead of fear. (Lieberman D. , 2004).Flooding is another psychotherapeutic technique discovered by psychologist Thomas Stampfl (1967) (as cited in Harold, 1990) that is still used in behavior therapy to treat phobias. It works by exposing the individual to painful memories they already have aiming to put together their repressed feelings with their current awareness. Flooding works on the principles of classical conditioning (Lieberman D. , 2004). Social cognitive theory (SCT) refers to learning in terms of interaction between external stimulus response, external reinforcement, and cognitive meditational processes (Corsini et al 2008).Personal and environmental factors do not function as independent determinants; rather, they determine each other. It is mainly through their behavior that individuals produce the environmental condition s that affect their behavior in a mutual way. New experiences are evaluated in relation to the past; prior experiences help to subsequently direct and inform the individual as to how the present should be considered. Behavior therapy has mainly been associated with the era between 1950 and 1960, especially with the theories of I. Pavlov, E. Skinner, J. Wolpe, and A.Bandura (Yates A. , 1975). It is a clinical application of psychology that relies on empirically-validated principles and procedures (Plaud, 2001). Since the first behavior therapy alternatives to the psychoanalysis and other associated therapies were introduced almost 50 ago (Wolpe, 1958), constant improvements in behavior therapy have mostly been supplied by its foundation on conditioning principles and theories (Eifert ; Plaud, 1998). Specifically, behavior therapy relies exclusively on the experimental methodology initiated by I. Pavlov. Clinical applications of Pavlovian onditioning principles began in 1912, when one of Pavlov’s students, was the first to establish the counter-conditioning effect in the laboratory. Studies on anxiety have considerably assisted behavior therapy’s development. According to Wolpe and Plaud (1997), Wolpe’s experimental studies were based on the implications of early Pavlovian experiments by giving emphasis to the importance of the conditioning procedures. Actually, Wolpe made important contributions to behavioral therapy, such as proposing systematic desensitization and assertiveness training, both of which have become important elements of behavioral therapy.Albert Bandura is usually associated with the development of the social cognitive theory (Corsini et al, 2008). Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory derived from social learning theory. It aims to explain how behavioral principles and norms are learned through an interaction of the individual and his/her environment, mostly through the observing others. Skinner worked on radical behavi orism. He rejected traditional psychology and all the included concepts that referred to what he called mentalism.That meant any concept that revealed a belief in cause and effect relationships between mental activities and learned behavior. In the 1966 edition of his 1928 book, The Behavior of Organisms, Skinner still named the belief that emotions are important factors in behavior a â€Å"mental fiction. † In addition, he thought that it is wrong, or at least not scientific, to consider that people cry because they are sorry or tremble because they are afraid. Behavior therapy developed rapidly. Three â€Å"waves†, that actually are three divisions of the behavior therapy’s development, have been proposed.The first wave focused mainly on altering overt behavior. The second wave focused on the cognitive factors that contribute to behavior. This approach is also known as cognitive behavior therapy (CBT). The â€Å"third wave† of behavior therapy was propo sed by Hayes, Hollette, and Linehan (as cited in Corsini et al, 2008). It includes dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). On the whole, DBT claims that some individuals, due to unfavorable environments during childhood and due to unknown biological factors, react abnormally to emotional stimulation.Their level of arousal increases much more rapidly, peaks at a higher level, and takes more time to go back to baseline. DBT is a technique for learning skills that aids to reduce this reaction. DBT applies mindfulness, interpersonal effectiveness, emotion regulation, and distress tolerance skills (Yates A. , 1975). Mindfulness skills include core skills. They are the most difficult skills to accomplish, but when learned, the process of thoughts and emotions occurs in an significantly different manner.Some of the processes included to the mindfulness skill, as listed by Corsini et al (2008), are the following: Observe or attend to emotions without trying to terminate them when painful, describe a thought or emotion, be nonjudgmental, stay in the present, focus on one thing at a time (one-mindfully). Mindfulness skills are applied in later sessions, when the other (three) types of skills on focus. Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) is a quite new type of psychotherapy, found by Steven C. Hayes in the mid 1990s.It is the development and combination of behavioral therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which has mostly been the established therapy for treatment of conditions like depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorders. Acceptance and commitment therapy, like CBT, is based on the philosophy of â€Å"Functional Contextualism†, a modern philosophy of science rooted in philosophical pragmatism and contextualism, suggesting that words and ideas can only be understood within some kind of context and they are therefore often misinterpreted due to the fact that people have individual contexts.An ad ditional therapy that has had an impact on ACT is Relational Frame therapy, a type of behavioral analysis focused on language and learning. ACT is differentiated from CBT since it directly accepts the thought, â€Å"Everybody hates me. † This thought is viewed without passion, and sometimes it is transformed to a phrase like â€Å"I am having the thought that everybody hates me. † Ding so may be repeated until the thought becomes defused. Hayes identifies about 100 defusion techniques in ACT. Previous distracting thoughts are not actively dismisses by the individual going through ACT.This is another distinguishing factor from CBT which intends to reduce distracting and unhelpful thoughts. ACT therapists argue that the process of their therapy is much briefer than CBT, and for that reason it is considered more effective. There is a variety of concepts referring to behavior therapy. Two main categories of those concepts are the learning principles and the personal variab les. In classical conditioning, the researcher begins with identifying a reflex response, one that is activated regularly by a specific stimulus (Thorpe et al, 1990). In humans, these reflexes include he eye-blink response to dust or a puff of air in the eye, and the reflex of the knee jerk reflex in response to a hit in the correct point by the researcher’s hammer. Such reflexes appear regularly without any particular guidance, so they are considered to be unlearned or unconditioned. Classical conditioning occurs when a new stimulus acquires the ability to trigger one of these reflex responses. Operant conditioning makes use of the principles of (positive or negative) reinforcement and (positive/negative) punishment to bring about a desired response. (Lieberman D. 1994). Positive reinforcement is the presentation of something pleasant or rewarding immediately following a behavior, but In Negative Reinforcement a particular behavior is strengthened by the consequence of the s topping or avoiding of a negative condition. Moving to punishment, negative punishment occurs when in an attempt to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future, an operant response is followed by the removal of a desired stimulus, though in positive punishment an operant response is followed by the presentation of an aversive stimulus.Operant conditioning occurs when a consequence eventually becomes expected for a particular behavior. One example would be when a student is rewarded for getting good grades. The positive outcome of their behavior to study and achieve gain those grades is motivated by the anticipation of a positive result in addition to the good grades. In order to teach individuals complex tasks, Skinner proposed a system of successive approximations of operant learning where tasks are broken down into several steps that, when individually learned, summarily progress towards the complex task desired.Extinction refers to the reducing the probability o f a response when a characteristic reinforcing stimulus is no longer presented. Discrimination learning is the process by which individuals learn to differentiate their responses to different stimuli. When the opposite occurs, that is when individuals fail to discriminate between different situations ending up with behavior on situations other than that in which it was acquired, generalization takes place (Corsini R. et al, 2008). Personal variables that were proposed by Mischel (1973, as cited in Corsini R. et al, 2008), explain and â€Å"swapping† between individual and situation.They include the individual’s competences to create varied behaviors under appropriate conditions, his/her perception of events and people (including the self), expectancies, subjective values and self-regulatory systems. Behavior therapy is applied for and aims to treat only learned behavioral problems. Sometimes, however, health and learned behavioral problems coexist. Whether the individu al being in treatment has a learned behavioral problem alone, or a learned problem which coexists with a learned one has to be determined in the beginning of the process of behavior therapy.Two additional possible situations are either the individual in therapy to have a learned behavior problem as part of a psychosomatic disorder, or to have a medical problem that just appears to have been learned (Yates A. , 1975). Behavioral assessment is vital to behavior therapy. It developed rapidly during the 1970s, after initially being a covered part of behavior therapy in terms of research and professional development (Thorpe G. , et al, 1990). Now, behavior assessment is a rich and diverse subfield of behavior therapy that continues to develop rapidly.In clinical settings, behavior therapy is a method for treating mental health problems. Treatment involves proposing and putting into practice a plan of action that aims to resolve a problem. Deciding on the plan of action depends on the pro blem formulation so what has to be done in the early sessions of the therapy is the agreement of the therapist and the client on what is wrong and what has to be changed to improve or even eliminate it. Behavior therapy uses a number of assessment methods. In guided imagery the individual is guided in imagining a relaxing scene or series of experiences (Rimm D. t al, 1974). When an individual visualizes an imagined scene reacts as though it were actually occurring; therefore, imagined images can have a great impact on behavior. Role playing is a technique used in behavior therapy to provide partaking and involvement in the learning process (Thorpe G. et al, 1990). It helps the individual (learner) to receive objective feedback about his/her performance. Role playing techniques can be applied to motivate individuals pay more attention to their interpersonal state.One of its most important aspects is that it helps the learner experience a real life situation in a protected setting. Ph ysiological recording, self-monitoring, behavioral observation, and psychological tests and measurements are some more examples of the assessment techniques that can be applied during the behavior therapy (Corsini R. et al, 2008). In general, behavior therapists do not use standardized psychodiagnostic tests and projective tests. They broadly make use of checklists and questionnaires, self-report scales of depression, assertion inventories, etc.These assessment techniques are not sufficient for carrying out a functional analysis of the determinants of a problem, but they are useful in establishing the initial severity of the problem and charting therapeutic efficacy over the course of treatment. In conclusion, the clinical investigations of behavior therapists have significantly improved our understanding of how our behavior is coordinated with external events that occur in our lives; they have created ways of mediating in disturbing interpersonal aspects that were not efficiently t reated through other kinds of therapy.Behavior therapy can be applied to treat a full range of psychological disorders. These include anxiety disorders, depression and suicide, sexual dysfunctions, marital problems, eating and weight disorders, addictive disorders, schizophrenia, childhood disorders, phobias, pain management, hypertension, prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease, etc. (Thorpe G. et al, 1990). References Corsini R, & Wedding D. (2008). Current Psychotherapies. New York: Thomson Brooks/Cole. Eifert, G. , & Plaud, J. (1998). From behavior theory to behavior therapy (pp. 1-14).Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Erwin E. (1978). Behavior Therapy: Scientific, Philosophical, & Moral Foundations. New York: Cambridge University Press. Harold (1990). Handbook of Social and Evaluation Anxiety. New York: Plenum Press. Lieberman D. (2004). Learning and Memory: an integrative approach. United states: Thomson Wadsworth. Plaud, J. (2001). Clinical science and human behavior. Jou rnal of Clinical Psychology, 57, 1089-1102. Rimm D. , & Masters J. (1974). Behavior Therapy: Techniques and Empirical Findings. New York: Academic press. Thorpe G. , & Olson S. 1990). Behavior Therapy: Concepts, Procedures and Applications. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Wachtel P. , (1997). Psychoanalysis, Behavior Therapy, and the Relational World. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. Wolpe, J. , & Plaud, J. (1997). Pavlov’s contributions to behavior therapy: The obvious and the not so obvious. American Psychologist, 52, 966-972. Wolpe, Joseph. 1958. Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Yates A. , 1975). Theory and Practice in Behavior Therapy. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Bipolar Disorder Symptoms And Symptoms - 1486 Words

Some people may think that having bipolar disorder means that anyone with the disorder are just simply put, â€Å"crazy†, I was one of those people but the meanings of those two things couldn’t possibly be any more different. Bipolar disorder is defined as â€Å"A disorder associated with episodes of mood swings ranging from depressive lows to manic highs.†(google.com) â€Å"Bipolar disorder is a chronic illness with recurring episodes of mania and depression†(nami.org). â€Å"The term â€Å"bipolar† — which means â€Å"two poles† signifying the polar opposites of mania and depression†(healthline.com). This paper will explain what bipolar disorder consist of meaning; the causes, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, treatments, different types, who is affected, what to avoid, and also the history of the illness. Bipolar disorder was first discovered by a man named Aretaeus in the 1st century. The people of Greece in ancient times even noticed that lithium salt in baths would calm someone with mania or cheer up someone with depression. As time went on more discoveries on the subject were made. In the 17th century there was talk of needing to find a treatment by Robert Burton and later on someone named Theophilus Bonet linked mania to melancholy and called it â€Å"manico - melancholicus†, which brought on the consideration of the two disorders to be one. Then as the 19th and 20th centuries rolled in, a psychiatrist named Jean-Pierre Falret made what is considered the first documented diagnosis and geneticShow MoreRelatedSymptoms And Symptoms Of Bipolar Disorder706 Words   |  3 PagesBipolar disorder is a serious mental illness that is characterized by changes in mood. It can lead to risky behavior, damage relationships and careers, and even suicidal outcomes if it’s not trea ted. 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